The flavours a woman eats during pregnancy may shape her child’s vegetable preferences years later, new research suggests. Children as old as three continue to show a more favourable response to the smell of vegetables they were first exposed to in the womb, according to a study led by Durham University.
Three-year-old reactions
Researchers followed up on a group of children whose mothers had taken either carrot or kale powder capsules during the final stages of pregnancy. At age three, those whose mothers had consumed carrot powder showed fewer negative reactions to the smell of carrots, while those whose mothers had taken kale powder reacted more favourably to the scent of kale. The children’s facial expressions were filmed as they sniffed cotton swabs infused with the vegetable powders — they did not taste them.
Professor Nadja Reissland, from Durham University’s department of psychology, who led the research, said: “Looking at the children’s reactions aged three, you can see it’s a genuine response, they are not acting.” She added: “Each time, we coded their facial expressions when exposed to either the carrot or kale flavour or smell. What we see over time is that the children are still more favourable to the vegetables they were exposed to while they were in the womb.”
How prenatal exposure creates lasting flavour memory
The study builds on earlier work that tracked the same children from before birth. In the initial stages, researchers used 4D ultrasound scans to observe foetal facial expressions at 32 and 36 weeks of gestation, shortly after mothers ingested the capsules. Foetuses exposed to carrot showed more “laughter-face” responses, while those exposed to kale showed more “cry-face” responses — an indication that even before birth, babies can detect and distinguish flavours transferred through the amniotic fluid.
Further observations were made around three weeks after birth, with newborns presented with cotton swabs infused with carrot or kale powder (or water as a control). The same children were then studied again at age three, allowing researchers to compare reactions across three developmental stages. Professor Reissland explained: “From this, we can suggest that being exposed to a particular flavour in late pregnancy can result in long-lasting flavour or odour memory in children, potentially shaping their food preferences years after birth.”
The mechanism relies on the fact that foetuses inhale and swallow amniotic fluid, which contains compounds derived from the mother’s diet. By the last trimester, they are mature enough to detect and respond to these flavours. Professor Benoist Schaal, a co-author from the National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS) and the University of Burgundy in France, noted that fetuses can sense and remember flavours from the maternal diet. Professor Jackie Blissett, a co-author from Aston University, added that repeated prenatal flavour exposures may lead to preferences for those flavours postnatally.
Methodology and limitations
The most recent follow-up involved 12 three-year-olds drawn from the larger cohort of foetuses and newborns. Each child was presented with wet cotton swabs infused with either carrot or kale powder, and their facial reactions were filmed and later coded. The researchers acknowledged the small sample size as a limitation. The study was funded by Aston University and has been published in the journal Developmental Psychobiology.
Implications for diet and early interventions
The findings open up new possibilities for shaping children’s eating habits before they are born. Dr Beyza Ustun-Elayan, a co-author from Cambridge University and Radboud University Medical Centre, said: “These findings open up new ways of thinking about early dietary interventions, suggesting that flavours from the maternal diet during pregnancy may quietly shape children’s responses to foods years later.”
Previous research in the field has shown similar patterns: infants born to mothers who consumed anise-flavoured beverages during pregnancy showed a preference for anise odour after birth, while those whose mothers did not consume anise showed aversion or neutral responses. Studies have also found that prenatal exposure to carrot flavour can lead to enhanced acceptance of carrot-flavoured foods during weaning.
In light of the current results, Professor Reissland recommended that expectant mothers maintain a rich, varied diet incorporating fruits and vegetables of diverse colours. The research adds to a growing body of evidence that early sensory experiences — starting in the womb — can lay the foundation for lifelong food preferences, and may eventually inform antenatal advice aimed at improving public health.
